UNIVERSITY OF UME
Institute of Information
Processing - ADB
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Professor
KRISTO IVANOV
Chair,
Administrative Data Processing
DRAFT, 18 February 1991
This
is the first step of one part of a research program about the meaning of
computerization, and it is cast in the form of a "reader".
Modern
scientific disciplines have specialized and narrowed to the point that many
problems seem to require approaches characterized by the terms
interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary, systems, or the like.
The
trouble with such aproaches is that they sometimes are too easily dismissed
under the charge of not being sufficiently scientific or, worse, of being pure
cultural journalism. A paradoxical aspect of this charge is that the
commercial-governmental market orientation of modern scientific research is
often journalistic in the bad sense of the word. Its policies of evaluation are
recognized to call forth the "publish or perish" syndrome in an
academic world that relies on international publications that are evaluated in
terms of numbers of readers or, rather, copies sold in the affluent big science
communities of the English-American speaking world. This is the background of
phenomena like the "PROLOG-boom" in the last decade (Leith, 1987).
Sometimes
the charge reaches so far as to claim that - yes - the approaches may be
interesting but
they deal with essentially"philosophical" matters. It is probably to
the disadvantage of science and to its long run development to relegate certain
overall responsibilities and intellectual issues to journalism just because it
happens to have been less discussed and more vaguely defined than science.
Besides this it obvious for many of us that journalists stand, if possible,
under still greater pressure of short run committments, politics and power than
science itself.
We
propose to reinstate and affirm the respectability of such studies by claiming
that they are not proper of only advanced journalism but rather they are to be
related to an intellectual tradition which goes under the name of cultural
criticism.(Adorno, 1972), which has many roots back in time (Spengler,
1981-1983/1918, including his critique of journalism in terms of the press,
and, of course, further back in the philosophical tradition). Recently it has
been explicitly perceived as an object of research in its own right, albeit in
quite different perspectives, within e.g. the disciplines of economics (Khnke,
1988) and computer and information science (B¿dker, 1987; Ivanov, 1986; Ivanov,
1989b; Stamper, 1988).
In
what concerns philosophy proper, the term cultural criticism recalls the
"criticism" as inaugurated in the work of Immanuel Kant. It is
possible, however, that Kant has been accepted too promptly in our academic
community, at its face value. Several new currents in systems science seem to
adopt Kant's critical philosophy as a kind of basic assumption (Churchman,
1979), even if the need has been felt to develop it into a critical social
theory, and further to a "critical heuristics of social planning" (Ulrich,
1983; Ulrich, 1989). and a "liberating systems theory" that is by now
quite well overviewed (Flood, 1989; Gregory, 1989) and is mainly associated
with the name of J. Habermas
The
above mentioned adoption of Kant in systems science apparently seldom takes
into detailed account and discusses the extensive historical critique of Kant's
philosophy besides that which may be seen as implicit in Marx's critique of
Hegel. It is a critique which has played an important role in cultural
criticism, e.g. concerning the role of emotions, art and religion relative to
science, i.e. concerning the concept of science itself.
There
have been lately some authors today , non necessarily "philosophers",
who expose the shortcomings or at least the doubts rised by Kant's conceptions (Barrett,
1987, pp. 26, 51f, 79f, 83, 85f, 101-104, 109, more directly related to the
computer phenomenon; Simmel, 1984, pp. 37, 48; Spengler, 1981-1983/1918). It
is, however, remarkable, that no notice has been taken in modern criticism of
our scientific culture of the earlier historical opposition to Kant. We find
there Johann Georg Hamann (1730-1788) who contributed to the birth of German
romanticism and influenced Goethe, Herder, Schelling, Hegel, Schleiermacher,
Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. In that tradition we find also Eduard von Hartmann
(1842-1906) with his philosophy of the unconscious that would influence Carl
Jung and the rise of analytical psychology, important as it may be for
appreciating the import of cognitive science as applied to so called artificial
itelligence. We find also a later philosophers and sociologist like the
phenomenologist Max Scheler who refuses the formalism of the Kantian ethics
that apparently characterizes the later positions of Churchman's systems ethics
(as put forward in the "conversations" of the Journal for Systems
Research).
It
is then striking that Anglo-Saxon researchers not only ingnore but also seem to
be quite unconscious of their ignoring an appreciable number of influential
thinkers belonging to the best European traditions. Some names seem to have
never been known or, at any rate, are never mentioned in the modern debates
about the essence of science in relation to culture. Examples from the French
cultural sphere touching upon science, technology, philosophy, ethics,
psychology, etc. are Maine de Biran (1766-1824), Flix Ravaisson (1813-1900),
Lon Oll-Laprune (1839-1898), Maurice Blondel (1861-1949), Gaston Bachelard
(1884-1962). Bachelard, however, has been recently adduced in the context of a
research program (Nilsson, 1987; Nilsson, 1988). In general it is probable that
the work of these men as overviewed in European encyclopedias (Dictionnaire des
philosophes, 1984; Enciclopedia di Filosofia, 1981) is at least as important
for the understanding and design of computer systems as the positivistic,
marxistic or phenomenological approaches that dominate the Anglo-Saxon arena in
these last years.
What
could be, besides what are mostly general approaches mentioned above, a base
for culture-critical research with emphasis on computer and information
science? Research on the use of computers from the point of view of cultural
criticism can start with an overview of the rise of the computer phenomenon and
computer education, by means of a selection of articles from various journals (Annerstedt,
Forssberg, Henriksson, & Nilsson, 1970; Computer science curriculum, 1964;
Datamation , 1977; Edwards, 1962; Information systems-curriculum
recommendations of the 80's, 1982; Malik, 1975; Pylyshyn, 1970; Rodgers, 1970;
Scientific American, 1966; Scientific American, 1977; Solomonoff, 1966).
A
concomitant step would be to relate the above material to a discussion about
the nature of technology and technological development, including the economic
and political reality (Mayr, 1976a; Mayr, 1976b; Mendner, 1976; Mitcham, &
MacKey, 1972; Murray, 1982, an overview; Nordin, 1983, with en extensive
bibliography; Quiniou, 1971). In a way this kind of studies will run into other
studies suggested elsewhere in the romantic revolt against modern science and
technology, as well as in the history of mathematics (Bochner, 1973; Davis,
& Hersh, 1986, are examples that are pertinent to the present context; Kac,
Rota, & Schwartz, 1986; Kline, 1954; Kline, 1985; Zellini, 1985b), logic,
psychology, economics, and statistics. It is then clear that such types of
investigations may take us to the dangerous road of uncritical compilatory
eclecticism against which warnings have already been advanced (Ivanov, 1988).
A
first attempt to avoid falling into the trap of simple eclecticism can be
grounded in starting to consider technology mainly in the light of certain
continental thought that does not seem to be well known in our academic
community (Adorno, 1972; Gehlen, 1967; Gehlen, 1983; Spengler, 1981-1983/1918,
with due recognition of its controversial aspects) and a series of challenging
but less comprehensive standpoints (Fores, 1982; Jung, 1982; Lyons, 1979). Some
of this kind of thinking might have been represented on the Scandinavian scene (Ahlberg,
1974; Ahlberg, 1978) but it departs to some extent from better known approaches
that have been more consonant to our particular Anglo-Saxon academic milieu
during the last decades (von Wright, 1983; von Wright, 1986).
Attempts
have been already made to relate computer and information science more
specifically to the debate about the so called information society (Barrett, ;
Bolter, 1984; Burnham, 1983; Hoos, 1983; Roszak, 1986; Slack, & Fejes,
1987; Tengstrm, 1987; Weizenbaum, 1976). One particular attempt has
furthermore tried to relate this kind of debate to political science as well as
to judicial and theological matters (Ivanov, 1986). It indicates that future
work on this subject should be pursued along the lines of thinkers who
complement the above mentioned continental tradition and its roots in Greek
philosophy with due consideration of Christian ethics. This could be done with
the help of e.g. pragmatically influenced bridge from mythology (Jung,
1953-1979; Pauli, 1955; von Franz, 1970, and analytical psychology), as
implicit lately in the emphasis on metaphors, over to cognitive psychology in
its relations to logic and mathematics in their connections to empirism and
technology. It is, in general, a matter of relating science to theology and
religion (Blumenberg, 1985; Filoramo, 1985; Gunon, 1982; Heisenberg, 1975;
Portmann, 1954; 1969; Poupard, 1986; Weil, 1966; 1970-1974; Weizscker, 1959;
1972; Zellini, 1985a; 1985b; 1988).
Because
of the absurdly increasing complexity of the subject matter it will certainly
be necessary to adopt of style of study and of exposition which is educational
or didactic in the best sense of the word, developing the capability of
thinking and speaking in "simple" terms on the basis of complexity
itself. There are already good example of this (Barrett, 1987; Lewis, 1988).
At
any rate we should be able to build further on those who have attempted to
introduce at least a minimum of ethical concerns from inside their own
disciplines , and particularly in computer and information science (Bhler,
1970; Chargaff, 1971; Gaa, 1977; Heisenberg, 1975; Karier, 1976; Kass, 1972;
Simpson, 1951; Tukey, 1975).
It
should be noted that social, socialistic, and marxistic aspects of ethics and
morality in terms of responsibility, solidarity, and such, are according to our
approach included in the context of Christian values to which they properly
belong (Brunsson, 1982; Sjstrm, 1980). At a quite high level of complexity of
analysis there are besides better known works by Reinhold Niebuhr and Paul
Tillich, others which insightfully point at the relations between Christianity
and socialism (Capurro, 1985; Churchman, 1979; Etzioni, 1988; Gustafsson, 1988;
Johansson, 1982; Jnsson, 1982; Sen, 1987; Weizenbaum, 1976; Zellini, 1988).
Such insights could possibly clarify why in typically socialistic or marxistically
oriented research in computer and information science (Churchman, 1971)
sometimes the concept of ethics or morality is barely, if ever, mentioned.
The
program for cultural criticism outlined up to now includes the true and the
good, but not the beautiful of the classical Greek trilogy. One hypothesis is
that this beautiful may be important for the question of action, practice or
implementation which is considered elsewhere. A popular journalistic expression
of this idea is to say that it helps to make beautiful that which is true and
good, if one wishes to realize it in practice. In the context of research and
education in computer and information science we usually say that it must be
"fun" if it is going to work in the sense of attracting students and
researchers. It is however obvious that fun by itself is not enough and that it
may be downright false, immoral or dangerous (Davis, et al., 1986; Ivanov, 1986).
What is meant by positive fun may be rather an analog to a
"motorcycle" as it is used by Robert Pirsig in the well known
technical-philosophical book "Zen and the art of motorcycle
maintenance" (Ivanov, 1987), i.e. a pretext or, literally, a vehicle for
conveying and important message to the reader, recipient, or partner in a
dialogue.
In
spite of having been overtly recognized in the systems approach (Forsgren,
Ivanov, & Nordstrm, 1988) it is safe to claim that the meaning and
importance of the aesthetical dimension in computer and information science has
not yet been properly understood. Our proposed orientation towards continental
thought may offer a repair to this situation since art and aesthetics, not the
least in their relation to science, have been there the object of much
attention e.g. in the romantic tradition and its present day disciples (Bellin,
1989; Ivanov, 1986; Lewis, 1988; Riley, 1986; Troeltsch, 1925; Troeltsch, 1974;
Troeltsch, 1977). Also in the Anglo-Saxon world have appeared in the last two
decades authors who indirectly relate to the aims of this tradition in terms of
interest for both ethics and aesthetics in relation to the computer (Buckley,
1987), and for Far Eastern cultures where the aesthetical dimension often has
been integrated with the ethical-religious and the intellectual one.(de Lubac,
1983; Guillaumin, 1987; Niebuhr, 1986; Poupard, et al., 1987). In doing so they
certainly relate to earlier reports which remained less known (Ehn, 1988;
Mitroff, 1984) including certain work by the influential founder of
psychophysics Theodor Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) and others.
Nowadays
this ambition to integrate science with art and aesthetics shows up more seldom
and in less glamorous, simpler forms but there have been lately attempts to
call the attention upon the aesthetic art dimension such as drama in the
context of computer science (Churchman, 1979; Ivanov, 1986, about the "Don
Jun syndrome"; 1974). They remind certain aesthetic-mythological approaches to memory as they could be
relevant to the theory of data bases (Goethe, 1970; Steiner, ).
Cultural
criticism as an integral part of a research project may finally have a
cathartic effect on the researcher in that it can foster humility and tenacity
as one confronts the vastness of the problem situation. If anytning, the vast
complexity could make us suspect that the problems are wrongly formulated and
that we are looking at the wrong things, needing a kind of Copernican
revolution that decreases our need of more data while facilitating the grasp of
the data we already have.
Many
ambitious and insightful researchers are tempted to desert university research
when they are faced with the impotence of their efforts. A humble attitude of
mind might help to make us realize that we all are participants of a higher
drama in which we cannot claim to play a powerful central role, that would
amount to hubris. The wish for power, a word which has become so common in the
context of computer science, may be part of the trouble (Born, 1963; Steiner,
1926/1988). Even granted that this drama may attain the proportions of a
gigantic apocalyptic cultural crisis, a real "decline of the West"
which prevents easy pragmatic results within our short lifespan, it still does
not prevent our research from being meaningful, pointing to "beyond
ourselves" and to future generations.
Do
references to critical theory and philosophy imply that scientific research
expands into areas which do not legitimately belong to science, usurpating the
rights of other fields of intellectual activity? Here it is claimed, on the
contrary, that these other fields - and journalism in particular - shows more
sensitivity for problems that we should also have responsibility for. As an
example we have chosen a series of recent newspaper articles about modern
German philosophy (Bortoft, 1986; Sllstrm, 1980) as they touch upon some of
the matters that were mentioned above in a much more detailed and engaged way
than can be perceived in the university environment in which research is
performed.
Karl-Otto
Apel as a main exponent, together with Jrgen Habermas, of contemporaneous
critical social theory is interviewed about his normative view of ethics, a
view that he shares with most modern philosophers after Kant. It is a view
which is associated with a strong belief in the capability to solve ethical
conflicts by means of duty and rationality. Under the eighties, however, this
normative ethics has been criticized by the new current of
"neo-aristotelianism", represented in Germany by such names as
Joachim Ritter's heir Odo Marquard and Hermann Lbbe, and in the USA by
Alisdair MacIntyre, Charles Taylor and Bernard Williams. It is a kind of
postmodern ethics, an enlightened skepticism which distrusts philosophy's capability
to give definitive answers to ethical questions. Ethics would do better by
freeing itself from morals since the latter is too abstract and reductionistic
when it bases itself on general concepts such as "justice". It is
only interested in setting up rules and does grasp only the concept of duty.
Duty ans norms are only a small part of ethics. Ethics starts with the
individual's concrete experience which should be confronted with a revived
Aristotelian eudemonism, a concept of what good life and wellbeing is all
about Ethics should not be based
on social contractual or consensual thinking, of which Habermas' critical
theory is a variant, and which tends to turn the individual into an abstract
byproduct of a system of thought: man in there envisaged as a Kantian-influenced
actor who is rational but nonsocial and nonhistorical.
Habermas'
and Apel's critical theory rejects this neo-aristotelianism and refuses a
return to the post-structuralists' "purely aesthetical"
interpretations of thinkers like Nietzsche and Heidegger. The new generation of
critical theorists like Axel Honneth, Martin Seel and Norbert Bolz, however,
seem to come close to the neoaristotelian standpoints when dealing with e.g.
the power aspects of communication (cf. Axel Honneth's Kritik der Macht, Suhrkamp, 1985) and with ethics
and aesthetics. A close look at the neoaristotelian Odo Marquard puts into
evidence that current's interest for "tradition" as a necessary
platform for change and "polyteistic" improvement, even if Marquard
himself shuns talking about religion. Continuous positive justification,
explanation or rationalization of all "why not" challenges to reform
status-quo cannot be obtained within the frame of possible efforts. Habermas'
and Apel's universalism as expressed in emphasis on universal rules, e.g. about
rationality, is an impediment for that pluralism and respect for uniqueness
which is necessary for tolerance and emergence of improvements. A problem with
universalism is also the paradoxical fact that while universal values such as
justice and equality are nominally spreading on the surface of the earth, a
decreasing part of the concrete life follows general rules. Philosophical
ethics, like ethical discourse, obviously cannot rescue us. A certain reliance
on tradition is necessary.
In
spite of philosophical leaders's eschewing spiritual and religious matters
there is a marked increasing interest for these matters among students, to the
point that prof. Wolf Lepenies, at Wissenschaftskolleg of Freie Universitt in
West Berlin sees a risk that humanities become a center for cultural pessimism
characterized by anti-Enlightenment and irrational tendencies.
It
is not obvious that so called neoconservative tendencies have strengthened the
position of the Church, but it is rather so that environmental movements and
other social movements do not anymore attract teenagers. They are rather
attracted by a new spiritual, not necessarily confessional, search. An
interviewed free philosopher, Peter Sloterdijk, in a way that is symptomatical
for the attitude towards religion, observes that "it is possible to make
up a good argumentation without getting in the motherly embrace of the holy
Church".
The
spiritual interest is welcome also in the one only private university in
Witten-Herdecke, founded by a group of anthroposophers and businessmen, where
physicians, natural scientists and economists complete their specialist studies
with humanistic education in "the fundamentals", a combination of
philosophy, art and history. The initiative is led by Peter Koslowski who
together with Reinhard Lw is also director for a new research institute for
philosophy and public law in Hannover. It is financed by the catholic Church
represented by bishop Josef Homeyer, and its purpose is the revival of the study
of the condition of modern man against the background of 2000 years of
Christian tradition.
Both
Koslowski and Lw are students of Robert Spaemann's school of thought established in Mnchen since several
decades, and they base their whole activity on Christian humanism. Sometimes
they claim to represent postmodernism but according to prof. Wolfgang Welsh at
Freie Universitt, their diagnosis and their program is certainly in sharp
opposition to what has been known elsewhere as postmodernism. They speak for a
healing through integration, a "unity of the living world" which will
be attained through a new essentialism and a return to Christianity. They to
link a premodern view of man to a new free thinking, and they represent a
particular German form of neoaristotelianism. Their philosophy is not
conservative but rather "restaurative", there is something valuable
that has to be reinstated.
In
several respects this philosophy is opposite to the "radical" German
neoaristotelianism that distrusts natural law and equates belief in human
rights with belief in superstition and fiction. Human rights are appreciated as
one of the few good things that modernity or the modern project explicitly
developed out of Christian thought. And while the radicals in most cases reject
teleology, Koslowski and Lw base most of their arguments on the view that
living beings have their natural destiny in a purpose. In spite of teleology
having being discredited in science during the last two centuries it has yet
been popular in another form, in the belief in the modern project and, as
philosophy of history, in the view of the possibility for history's development
towards progressively higher forms of consciousness and emancipation. Koslowski
has also recently published a book (Spengler, 1981-1983/1918) were an attempt
is made to ground economics on ethical thinking, a practical requirement that
recently has been well illustrated in a less theoretical form (Barrett, 1987).
Koslowski directs his attention towards gnosticism, a system of religious
philosophy that originally flourished in the first six centuries of the Church,
to be seen as a way for rational understanding of Christian faith, in a manner
akin to its appearance in the humanism and psychology of Carl G. Jung.
It
should be remarked, however, that the above approach considers that a gnostic
tries to "justify religious claims rationally and philosophically" in
order to maintain a dialogue with exponents of other religions, and that
gnosticism, as opposed to "pure revelation religion", is more
tolerant towards other religions. In spite of this deserving the sympathy of
most intellectuals the risk is, of course, that a vaguely defined reason,
philosophy or science is overruling the religious sphere. It is possible to
find occasions even in the sphere of mathematics where we are reminded that
knowledge of God, seen as an ultimate purpose of human life, may be arrived in
three ways: the way of imagination, the way of reason, and the way of
revelation (Pirsig, 1974).
By
means of what may look as a digression into journalistic presentation of modern
philosophical debate it should be by now evident that cultural criticism should
be considered an integral part of our proposed research. The journalistic
dimension of our exposition reminds us that a morning newspaper that oviously
addresses not only professional philosophers but also the public of intelligent
laymen must necessarily include in its audience intelligent computer or
information scientists. It would be absurd to assume at the outset that these
scientists should keep their insights and reactions private and isolated from
their scientific work, as if the reading of such material were a kind of pure
entertainment.
It
is also to be remarked that to our knowledge, the proposed research is the only
one to have been formulated in Scandinavia that allows for consideration, in
the field of computer and information science, of the issues touched in the
debate. While others have expressed interest for, but not yet really applied
the main communicative or cooperative ideas of critical social theory (Capra,
1975; Zukav, 1980), it has been the background of our research proposal to link
the question of power in computation and communication (Jones, 1982; Pauli,
1955) to power in law and political science and, through gnostic analytical
psychology, to theology (Andersen, & Mathiassen, 1986; Dobbs, 1975; Hilton,
1987).
It
is in a sense remarkable that most Scandinavian research on computer and
information science probably has nothing to say nor to comment upon the ongoing
debates on modern currents in German philosophy as it does not deem itself
related to them. It could be believed that the reason lies in the irrelevance
of these matters for research related to information technology. Some
sensitivity for what is going on in research journals, however, will reveal
that these problems are producing highly significative symptoms (Bolzoni, 1987;
Hilton, 1988; Ivanov, 1989b; Yates, 1966), that in turn actualize historical
debates (Barrett, 1987, pp. 74; Zivkovic, 1989a) that have been left in
irresponsible oblivion by the scientific community. A reasonable judgement is
then that such a circumstance constitutes an argument for considering that our
ideas have also a general import including scientific cooperation on the European
scene, and that the research proposed here.deserves to be supported with
resources intended for both human sciences and natural-technological sciences.
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