UNIVERSITY OF UME
Institute of Information
Processing - ADB
|
Postal
address: S-901
87 UME (Sweden) |
Tel
(direct dialing): +46
90 166030 |
Telefax: +46
90 166126(166688) |
Email
(Internet): kivanov@cs.umu.se |
Professor
KRISTO IVANOV
Chair,
Administrative Data Processing
DRAFT, 1991-1992 [with PS-Note in December 2008]
Computers -
Organizations
[PS
NOTE WRITTEN IN DECEMBER 2008: THE ANNOUNCED EDITING OF THIS TEXT HAS NOT BEEN
POSSIBLE AND PARTICULARLY THE
LATER PART OF THE TEXT IS CORRUPT AFTER TRANSLATION FROM AN EARLY
MICROSOFT-WORD VERSION. IT IS BARELY LEGIBLE. IT IS INCLUDED FOR THE POSSIBLE VALUE OF THE REFERENCES.
WHICH OBVIOUSLY REFLECT THE STATE-OF-THE ART AT THE TIME - YEARS 1989-1992]
Introduction
The following text is an unedited material excerpted from
a previous version of the research program. It will be rewritten as soon as
possible but is included here for potentially interested readers who do not
eschew a text that is most difficult to read.
This section of a research proposal intends to cover the
issue of computer and software usage starting from the point of view of
organization theory and business administration.
Some directions for
IT-research
Beside software
developers there are also organization theorists and practitioners at various
levels, engineers, economists, etc. who have widened their experience and
interest towards the issue of systems, information systems, and computers, and
whose work should be considered in our research (Swanson, 1976; 1982;
Mason, & Mitroff, 1973; Erlandson, 1981, close to the efforts in Nordstrm,
1987 and Forsgren; Nordstrm, 1987; Forsgren, 1988b; Turoff, & Hiltz, 1982;
Stevens, 1982; Meadows, & Robinson, 1985, esp. pp.1-15, 373-438; Henderson,
1987; Ehn, 1988; Gibson, & Ludl, 1988).
In Scandinavia,
however, early efforts of this kind resulted initially during the 1960's and
1970's in a sort of technical-formal business analysis that was labeled
information systems analysis and information systems research, a hybrid between
traditional programming and "information flows" as found in the
theory of accounting (Ijiri, 1965). As mentioned
earlier, it was found that they could described in terms of graph theory or
topological algebra such as applied to electric circuit theory. Such an
orientation was one basis for an influential school of information systems represented
by Langefors and his followers (Langefors, 1973;
Langefors, & Sundgren, 1975; Lundeberg, 1976; Olle, Sol, & Tully, 1983;
1982, see Lundeberg's contribution ). Comparing with the
developments in Scandinavia (Bansler, 1987,
presents a partial summary), in the USA and in
other countries similar approaches had an almost simultaneous start (Gatto, 1964;
Grindley, 1966)
generating in a few years a sizable amount of pertinent literature (Couger, & Knapp,
1974; Olle, et al., 1982; Olle, et al., 1983; Olle, H.J., & Verrijn-Stuart,
1986; Olle, et al., 1988; Langefors, Verrijn-Stuart, & Bracchi, 1986;
Avison, & Fitzgerald, 1988). Attempts to
overview and systematize such literature, e.g. by means of various list-table
taxonomies have paradoxically also grown in these last few years (Blank, et al., 1982;
Lyytinen, 1987; Iivari, 1988).
A late expression of
the same interest profile is represented by the label of decision support
systems (Lee, Cosh, &
Migliarese, 1988, presents a survey) which by now seems
to have parted in two branches.
One of them is
oriented towards advanced variants of conceptual modeling (Humphreys, &
Berkeley, 1988) or
computer aided support of software engineering, CASE, which in close connection
with AI and expert systems thinking strives towards greater formalization and
mathematization. This is done not only in terms of graph theory (e.g. Petri
nets) but rather in terms of either intuitive ad hoc piecemeal heuristic
formalizations which are basically required for running the computer tool. The
reliance is then mainly upon notations inspired by symbolic logic in a
technical, engineering, instrumental spirit without particular connection to
the disciplinary and historical issues in mathematics and logic. It is
particularly apparent in the treatment of such fundamental issues as information
quality, accuracy, software quality/reliability, software maintenance, etc. In
one such approach (Berztiss, 1989) it is, for instance
stated that "It deals with aspects of modularization, prototyping, and
software quality attributes. Info systems become increasingly integrated with
other kinds of systems. Information systems technology, since it already
interacts with software engineering and is beginning to interact with
artificial intelligence, can provide a catalyst for increasing the relevance of
software engineering to artificial intelligence. For a meaningful discussion of
the transition from an information base to a knowledge base we first need to
define some terms. We consider a data base to be simply a structured collection
of data. In an information base the data become interpreted by the imposition
of constraints, but all the data are still regarded as reliable. Now, much of
our decision making cannot be based entirely on reliable data, and we must
consider the admission of unreliable data into a system as a step that promotes
an information base to a knowledge base ( with handling of exceptions,
representation of different types of unreliable data, and inference making
capabilities). The essence of management of an information base is a
conservative attitude to what may be admitted to it, but the essence of
management of a knowledge base is a liberal attitude. Handling of unreliable
data is in quite a different category from exception handling. An exception
handler recognizes that something is amiss, and takes protective action. There
is nothing protective in the handling of unreliable data by a knowledge system.
We do not have the techniques for spotting unreliable data, classifying them,
and providing them with representations. Each class of uncertainty requires its
own approach. First the proper kind of logic has to be found for each
particular class of uncertainty. Next an inference ingine based on this logic has
to be built. Finally, since the support for any decision consists of inputs
belonging to vaious classes of uncertainty, the inference engines have to be
made to work in a cooperative mode" (ibid, pp. 16-18).
The other branch has
taken either a practical-popular orientation of user advising and counseling at
the level of administrative systems management (Martin, 1988) or as a reflective-critical
orientation towards disciplinary, transdisciplinary and epistemological issues
of the social sciences, but in separation from formal sciences such as
mathematics, logic, econometrics, and statistics (Hirschheim, 1985;
Klein, & Hirschheim, 1985; Mumford, Hirschheim, Fitzgerald, &
Wood-Harper, 1985; Boland, 1987). An appreciation of
these traditions requires a philosophical overview (Ivanov, 1984b). This second branch
can be said to approach those systems analysts who, starting from the
traditional field of business administration and having often taught in
graduate schools of business, have in the past 20 years stretched their
interest to encompass the business of organizational content of information
technology and associated programming. One intention of our proposed research
is to bridge both empirically and (unseparably) theoretically at the level of
basic research the gap between these two traditions of formal science and human
or moral science (as it was called during the past century).
This bridging of the
gap between programming or systems development and business administration,
economic science and political science may naturally fall under the label of
systems theory (Churchman, 1971). Today it might be
implemented within the frame of our research program by developing the
"hypertext" idea beyond na¥ve empiricism (Rychlak, 1977), i.e. in its
historical background (Calvino, 1988,
pp.71, 112, 116-123). This leads towards
some kind of explanatory "hypergames" which will expose systems
analysts and decision makers at all levels to the complexities and
possibilities of social systems design options. This has been suggested in the
field of essay literature (Calvino, ibid., pp. 35, 71, 94-95,108, 116, 119-121)
and in the context of systems design (Forsgren, 1988b;
Fischer, Morch, & McCall, 1989), in one case
constructing a metaphor based on the creation of nested multiboard games of
chess which provide a rich set of strategic possibilities, pointing ways out of
the international arms stalemate by supporting current arm negotiations (McWhinney, Greening,
& Mitroff, 1988).
Our proposed research
will also attempt, in the context of metaphorical approaches, to encompass
aesthetical and ethical dimensions by extending the concept of games into the
mythological dimension which is nowadays so exploited in information technology
for computer games (Mitroff, 1983a;
Mitroff, 1984).}
In Scandinavia such
efforts often have been culturally and politically influenced in a more
"socialistic" direction, close to issues of workers' participation
and work environment (Mathiassen, Rolskov,
& Vedel, 1983; Lanzara, & Mathiassen, 1985; Andersen, & Mathiassen,
1986; Mathiassen, & Nielsen, 1988; Mathiassen, & Munk-Madsen, 1989). These approaches,
however, to the extent that they have related themselves to traditional science
or to systems or organization theories at all (Ehn, 1988;
Mathiassen, et al., 1988; Mathiassen, et al., 1989) have displayed a
weak, if any, consideration for the hard historical issues about the theories
of logic and mathematics. Traditional science tends to be considered in terms
of an overall positivism, while the theoretical basis is sought in continental
interpretations of traditions of semiotics, rhetorics, dialectics, and even
aesthetics (Andersen, et al.,
1986, present a bold and original approach where a kind of rhethoric-dialectics is applied to the
dialogue structure of the paper itself). Lately "soft
systems methodology" SSM (Checkland, 1988) has also been
adduced with the addition of dialectical "hard contradictions" that
were already suggested from within the SSM tradition itself (Atkinson, &
Checkland, 1988), in the spirit of
"Hegelian inquiring systems" (Churchman, 1971), but with a
Marxistic-Maoistic twist which is rare to find outside socialistic Scandinavia.
The weak anchorage to the historical debates on logic and mathematics are also
reflected in the limited range of the discussion about formalization (Naur, 1982, one main
basis for Mathiassen & Munk-Madsen's, op. cit. criticism of the issue). Such weakness can
barely be offset by the stronger consciousness, displayed in such works, for
the hard everyday's consultants' practice of computerization projects and
program systems development.
One particular branch
of this expansion of software interests into organizational and systems
thinking deals with psychosocial aspects of problem solving and organizational
psychology in the form of studies on "cognitive styles" of problem
solving or "types" of decision makers, including Jungian analytical
psychological approaches (Mitroff, &
Kilmann, 1978; Mitroff, 1983b; Mitroff, 1983a; de Waele, 1978). This has also been
done in direct connection with the issue of information systems (McKenney, &
Keen, 1974; Benbasat, & Taylor, 1978; Kerola, & Taggart, 1982; Robey,
& Taggart, 1982; Fripp, 1982; Woolley, 1982, all concerning experimental
problems). The same
kind of interest was shown also in other organizational contexts not directly
related to information or computer systems (Mintzberg, 1976;
Mintzberg, 1978; Mintzberg, 1979)
Several of the above
approaches, both theoretical and experimental, refer to psychology, social
psychology, and social science in general, in clear connection to the issue of
contacts between logic and psychology to which one arrives by pursuing in depth
the disciplinary problems of logic and mathematics (Nyman, 1917;
Macnamara, 1986). The organizational
or, more generally, the social systems aspects of such endeavours may eventually
also lead to issues of multidisciplinary or transdisciplinary research which
are often desired by funding agencies without a clear evaluation of their
difficulties in the social and historical context of universities (Kubie, 1970;
Swanson, 1979; Granberg, 1976; Ivanov, 1984a; Knuthammar, & Plsson, 1985,
pp.52-62 & 124-127; Betz, 1971; Scott, 1984). Especially in the
fashionable field of information technology there might be further the problem
of what has been called "the higher capitalism, new men of power, and the
academic bourgeoise" (Nisbet, 1971, chs.
5-7; Scott, 1984).
The bridge to
wider issues and to a wider perspective
Another further line
of development starting from the expansion of concerns of computer programming
towards the "larger system" will takes us directly into what has been
labeled management information systems, administrative systems, etc. Some of these concerns in the USA have
been allowed to flourish at graduate schools of business while universities, at
least in Scandinavia have been sometimes pressed into transforming themselves
into institutes of technology or even technical institutes and vocational
training schools (cf. earlier references to studies on transdisciplinary
research and universities' development).
Business
administration can also be seen in a narrow perspective having its own
indisputable disciplinary nucleus in the theory of accounting which is several
hundred years old (Littleton, 1981). The roots of
accounting and auditing, however, are closely related to classical statistics
as it was understood until this century (Meitzen, 1891;
Sjstrm, 1983; Ivanov, 1984b; Ivanov, 1986; Johannisson, 1988), and to statistical
and geographical information systems as it has been noted by several authors (Dunn, 1974; Ivanov,
1972; Ivanov, 1986, p.28; Persson, 1976; Morgenstern, 1963; Nilsson, 1987). Historically and
conceptually accounting can be formulated in terms of the history of ideas and
in terms of systems thinking (Littleton, 1981;
Churchman, & Ackoff, 1955; Churchman, 1961; Benbasat, & Dexter, 1979;
Guillet de Monthoux, 1982; Johansson, 1982; Jnsson, 1982).It may be, for
instance, of great interest from the point of view of basic research to
understand what has been so fundamentally important in the idea of double entry
accounting, to the point of it still being considered the indisputable
"nucleus" of business administration or theory of information theory
and "data structure" for the firm.
It is then important
to note that such nucleus of accounting and auditing can either be expanded
into a questionable extremely formal or mathematical understanding of economic
information (Theil, 1966;
Marschak, 1971; Schwartz, 1986) against which
several warnings have been issued (Keynes, 1952, p.
19n; Schwartz, 1962; Ingelstam, 1970) or into the social
and psychological realities (as suggested by the above mentioned) (Churchman, et al.,
1955; Benbasat, et al., 1979; Boland, 1979; Mason, 1981). Such an expansion
fits well with the ideas of "organizational information systems" (Ciborra, 1985, has
re-established the term today) for comprehensive
research programs on information systems which have been formulated by business
and organizational researchers (Mason, et al., 1973;
Kling, & Scacchi, 1980; Kling, 1980; Ives, Hamilton, & Davis, 1980;
Mitroff, 1981; McFarlan, 1984, esp. pp. 97ff and 109ff; Docherty, Werngren,
& Widman, 1984; Cash, McFarlan, & McKenney, 1988; Ulrich, 1988).
Our own research
proposal may partly be regarded as an update and a development of such earlier
research programs, with the important addition of especial concerns for
information technology as represented by formal science embodied in industrial
computer hardware. The research should, however, ideally result also in
proposals for undergraduate and graduate curricula for university education
seen as a recruiting basis for future researchers who will guarantee the
continuity of the proposed studies. This is analog to what has been attempted
earlier on a more technical basis (Computer science
curriculum, 1964; Forsythe, 1967; Information systems-curriculum recommendations
of the 80's, 1982; Parnas, 1989), and where many
implicit theoretical committments could be inferred from pioneering
researchers' proposals for educational reference literature (Gorn, 1964;
Korfhage, 1964).
The main difficulties
for the research outlined in this section will probably be to ground an
administrative or organizational science into something which transcends the
often unconsciously presupposed utilitarian basis of J. Bentham's "moral
algebra" as applied to modern cost-benefit analysis. Some attempts have
nevertheless already been made to initiate a renewal of economic and
organizational business science, both from polemical liberal standpoints which
touch upon the issue of rationality, logic, and psychology (Hayek, 1949, ch.3;
1967; 1941), and from
other more recent standpoints which are not easily classified. They are both
"practical" (Hayes, &
Abernathy, 1980) and theoretical,
close to philosophy and ethics (Bhler, 1970; 1973; Morgenstern,
1972; Henderson, 1978; Budd, 1979; Brunsson, 1982; Brunsson, 1985; 1986;
Grassman, 1985; Guillet de Monthoux, 1983; 1987; 1981,, where especially the
last reference stays closest to information system problems; Etzioni, 1988;
Sen, 1987; Gustafsson, 1988). Others yet dwell
upon the issue of money and power in a bread historical or philosophical
perspective (Simmel, 1900/1978;
Desai, 1979, concentrating on Marxian economics, Daudi, 1986; Mathieu, 1985), in a
psychoanalytical perspective (Borneman, 1976), or in more or less
explicit Marxian terms, in less or more close contact with the issues of
information technology (Emery, &
Thorsrud, 1969; Quiniou, 1971; Ehn, 1988).
As we have seen,
Marxian-socialistic, together with phenomenological, "ordinary
language", and "speech-act" tendencies in systems development
have grown on the Scandinavian scene, and have recently been summarized in the
quest for "work oriented design of computer tools" (Ehn, 1988). In these contexts
we have the emphasis on the conceptualization of the computer as a
"tool" (Wallin, 1986), as a tool for
cooperative design (S¿rgaard, 1988), or as a vehicle for
user oriented systems development and communication (Nissen, &
Sandstrm, 1987; Nurminen, 1988). All this stands
close in matters of concern, if not in theoretical outlook, to the
qualitative-constructive proposal in the spirit of experimental idealism and
dialectical-pragmatic systems theory (Churchman, 1971;
Ivanov, 1972; Mitroff, 1981; Forsgren, 1988b). The conception of
tool according to these latter traditions of pragmatist instrumentalism should
open fruitful avenues for discussions of utilization of the computer tool or,
rather, instrument (Sachs, &
Broholm, 1989).
The theoretical basis
for "cooperative work" should, however, be worked out since it still
seems to be rather unclearly eclectic to the extent that it does not rely only
on marxistic approaches. While some authors (Ehn, 1988) rely on an attempt
of synthesis among e.g. Marx, Wittgenstein and Heidegger, others (Mathiassen, et al.,
1988; Mathiassen, et al., 1989) refer to the
dialectical materialism of Mao Tsetung and to a transaction theory of the firm.
An appreciation of these approaches would involve discussing the choice among
alternative meanings of dialectics (Rychlak, 1976;
Datan, & Reese, 1977; Riegel, 1979) and justifying the historical basis of the
transaction concept which is now rooted in rather positivistic works (Williamson, 1970;
Williamson, 1975, seemingly related to ; Marschak, & Radner, 1969), and with clear
connections to the so called transaction theory of value which has been
strongly criticized (Churchman, 1961,
ch.13).
Finally, an
interesting avenue of research has been recently opened, close to our proposed
main methodological orientation toward pragmatist social systems design, in
combination with European continental thinking (Ramirez, 1987;
Ramirez, 1988a; Ramirez, 1988b; Richardson, & Dowling, 1985; Motloch, 1989;
Katsenelinboigen, 1989, an abstract). It develops the
aesthetical dimension of organizations and design as it was also suggested in
the tradition of social systems theory (Churchman, 1979,
ch.11), on the
context of work-oriented design of computer tools (Ehn, 1988), and earlier in
other contexts (Moles, 1966). Such aesthetical
research efforts may apparently distantiate our proposed inquiry from the
original issues of information technology to the extent that they cannot be
seen as incorporating an aesthetic dimension. Aesthetics, however, in its
essence and in its relationships to logic and mathematics (Schleiermacher,
1988, on the essence; Steiner, 1886/1988, on the relationships) may be very relevant
to the study of formal sciences which are often guided by criteria of
simplicity and elegance. This may constitute an avenue for an understanding of
the sociopsychological and cultural determinants of the use of computers,
including the playing and gambling behaviour (Turkle, 1984; Fine,
1956; Bergler, 1958; Halliday, & Fuller, 1974) including its wider
scientific and cultural context (David, 1962; Eigen,
& Winkler, 1985; Carse, 1986) and
compulsive-subconscious aspects of thought which are mentioned in our section
about logical aspects.
In the context of
"tacit knowledge" and "knowledge acquisition" (Sandahl, 1987) aesthetics may
furthermore be central for the discussion of the communicability of knowledge (Schleiermacher,
1988, in the introduction pp. 39ff) which in turn is a
basic research problem in the development of computer support in the form of
expert systems, appearing in the form of polemics about tacit knowledge (Granzon, &
Josefson, 1988), and
hints about the role of drama (Hilton, 1987;
Hilton, 1988; Hilton, & Mindus, 1988). A similar role
could be envisaged even for poetry, e.g. in developing the concept of system (Erikson, 1975).
These last
considerations may serve as an introduction to the section of our research
proposal dealing with an overall summarizing "cultural criticism" as
it is implicit in several hardly classifiable works (Norstrm, 1912;
Gehlen, 1967; Ahlberg, 1974; 1978; Gunon, 1982; Filoramo, 1985; Poupard, 1986;
Lewis, 1988, esp. pp. 80-12). In doing so,
however, it is appropriate to reflect in a self-critical sense about the
striving for completeness and unity which may be characterizing the proposed
research. Modern writers (Musil, 1952) have questioned the
oversimplified tendency to monistic thinking, in view of alternatives, and
hopefully not only the better known relativism, eclecticism, skepticism,
nihilism, but rather late versions of pluralism such as postmodernism that have
been mentioned in the context of design of computer tools (Ehn, 1988). In the context of
this research proposal we are not strange to the idea of regarding the
presently fashionable hypertext idea of associative data structures,
"connection machines" (Hillis, 1986) and other problematic speculative comments
related to the "philosophy" of Apple Computer, Inc.(van Gigch, 1988) in the light of
their historical background in literature. This leads to interpreting such idea
as a kind of postmodernism or a search where even humanistic approaches to
mathematics (Zellini, 1985, as
referred by Calvino, 1988, p. 69) melt down with the
main ideas or the "six memos for the next millenium": lightness,
quickness, exactitude, visibility, multiplicity, and consistency. It will be
easily seen that at least five of these ideas fit well with being embodied in
the computer idea. One important intention of the section of the research
proposal which was presented here is, then, to secure the consideration of the
ethical moral dimension by means of its linkage to the previously mentioned
understanding of aesthetics as implicit in the criteria of elegance and
simplicity of formal science and of the science of forms or design (Thackara, 1988, and
the relation to formal science in Churchman, 1971,#, pp. 137ff.).
In this way, the
issue turns out to be one of interpreting the current wave of computerization
as a formalization of the world in aesthetical and ethical terms as they can be
identified within the technological and political changes of society. This is
the import of cultural criticism (Ivanov, 1986, tries
to open some avenues). It is reasonable to
expect that such an enterprise will not be considered as excessively original
and ambitious: the AI tradition has already legitimated efforts which might be
considered quite speculative, touching even upon the aeternal ultimate
questions of philosophy and religion, mind, soul, etc. (Haugeland, 1981;
Dennett, 1978; Brams, 1983; Hofstadter, 1979; Hofstadter, & Dennett, 1981;
Doyle, 1982).
===================================
FROM THIS POINT THE ORIGINAL TEXT OF MY DRAFT TURNS OUT
TO HAVE BEEN COMPLETEY CORRUPTED AND IT IS BARELY LEGIBLE. IT IS INCLUDED ONLY
WITH THE PURPOSE OF OFFERING SOME ORIENTATION ON THE POSSIBLE REFERENCES.
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tendencies in Germany (Oesterreich, &
Volpert, 1986) that lie
close to socialistic theory building (Leontjev, 1982;
Rubinstein, 1977) and which have been
well recognized in Scandinavia (Docherty, et al.,
1988)
(Oesterreich, et al.,
1986; Volpert, 1988)strong socialistic
consciousness combined with
aintenance, etc.
(Denning, et al.,
1989); This
closeness is indicated by the fact that the concept of cooperative negotiating
interaction as developed in the latter tradition in terms of
"quality" of information (Ivanov, 1972, chaps.
4-5, pp. 4.33ff.) and later summarized
in other contexts (Ivanov, 1986,
pp.47ff.) inspired
the Marxistic original model for labor union involvement in systems development
or development of negotiated information tools (Ehn, 1973). This Marxistic
model, with slight modifications, was later developed into what could be called
a model for constructive, interactive, dynamic, learning, negotiation systems
at the work place (Ehn, & Sandberg,
1979, pp. 34-35). The very same model
was later taken up in other Scandinavian Marxistic traditions (Mathiassen, 1982, p.
137). The main
difference compared with the original model (Ivanov, 1972) is the emphasis on
"resources" in the negotiations , to which it could be objected that
the determination of resources throws us, pradoxically and recursively, into
the need for an information system for that purpose according to the original
model. The same model idea of quality as learning flexibility or constructivity
was later incorporated in another dissertation in the pragmatist tradition #, on the essence; Steiner, 1926 that
tries to open some new avenues of research , systemutv(Forsgren, 1988aLabeling
something as being cultural criticism, journalistic essaism, or even philosop
pp. 176-177), where
the original metaphorical concept of quality was elaborated into the metaphor
of constructivity and conversation, with five related strategies for systems
development.parent in the treatment of
issues that have been considered ar greater depth elsewhere, such as
information quality and (Ivanov, 1972) (Hester, Parnas,
& Utter, 1981; Parnas, van Schouwen, & Kwan, 1988) Scandinavia such
efforts often interface, schools
(cf. the earlier reference {In(Bhler, 1970)gelstam, 1970 #305}
or into nizational science on nthoux, 1983; (Guillet de Monthoux,
1987; Guillet de Monthoux, 1981) (Nissen, et al.,
1987; Goldkuhl, & Lyytinen, 1982)on (Williamson), seemingly related
to & Radner, transaction theory of value that has been severelylong time
ago aesthetic use of computers,
including; (Mitroff, 1984) in its relation to
earlier non-computer studies (Eigen, et al., ;
Carse, 1986) as well
as the nscious aspects of thought thatdge (Schleiermacher,
1988, see in 1988 #282; Hilton, et al., 1988) amd music. wards
monistic thinking. It is to be hoped that he natives will not be only the
welland not evenple Computer Inc. sComputers and S
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